2023 Volume 42 Issue 2
Article Contents

LU Kean, YE Xiaoqing. The effects and mechanisms of environmental endocrine disruptors exposure on pubertal development in females[J]. Environmental Chemistry, 2023, 42(2): 358-369. doi: 10.7524/j.issn.0254-6108.2021102802
Citation: LU Kean, YE Xiaoqing. The effects and mechanisms of environmental endocrine disruptors exposure on pubertal development in females[J]. Environmental Chemistry, 2023, 42(2): 358-369. doi: 10.7524/j.issn.0254-6108.2021102802

The effects and mechanisms of environmental endocrine disruptors exposure on pubertal development in females

  • Corresponding author: YE Xiaoqing, yexq@zcmu.edu.cn
  • Received Date: 28/10/2021
    Accepted Date: 11/12/2021
    Available Online: 27/02/2023
    Fund Project: the Zhejiang Provincial Natural Science of Foundation of China (LQ20B070005) and Zhejiang Provincial Fund for Outstanding Young Talents of Traditional Chinese Medicine(2020ZQ013).
  • Puberty is a critical period for growth and development of human beings and can be easily affected by environmental factors. Environmental endocrine disruptors (EEDs) can damage the normal operation of the natural hormones and the onset of puberty. There is no unanimity for the effects of EEDs on females sextual maturity and the molecular mechanism is not clear so far. This article reviewed the effects of organic pollutants and heavy metals on pubertal development of females and their underlying possible mechanisms. We aimed to provide insights for further studies on the effects of EEDs on the pubertal development and the molecular mechanism, which will be of great significance for the accurate and comprehensive evaluation of the health risks of EEDs and protection of children health.
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The effects and mechanisms of environmental endocrine disruptors exposure on pubertal development in females

Fund Project: the Zhejiang Provincial Natural Science of Foundation of China (LQ20B070005) and Zhejiang Provincial Fund for Outstanding Young Talents of Traditional Chinese Medicine(2020ZQ013).

Abstract: Puberty is a critical period for growth and development of human beings and can be easily affected by environmental factors. Environmental endocrine disruptors (EEDs) can damage the normal operation of the natural hormones and the onset of puberty. There is no unanimity for the effects of EEDs on females sextual maturity and the molecular mechanism is not clear so far. This article reviewed the effects of organic pollutants and heavy metals on pubertal development of females and their underlying possible mechanisms. We aimed to provide insights for further studies on the effects of EEDs on the pubertal development and the molecular mechanism, which will be of great significance for the accurate and comprehensive evaluation of the health risks of EEDs and protection of children health.

  • 青春期是生理-心理-社会三者相互交织的现象,是儿童到成人的过渡期。青春期发动时相对整个生命周期的身心健康有着巨大影响[1],发动时相异常会增加女性罹患各种疾病甚至癌症的风险[2-4]。目前,全球儿童青春期发育开始时间和速度加快,尽管个体基因是其主要决定因素,但上世纪环境污染严重,已发现许多环境内分泌干扰物(environmental endocrine disruptors,EEDs)会严重影响青春期的正常进程[5].

    EEDs是一类能通过干扰天然激素的合成、分泌、运输、结合、反应和代谢等过程从而对人体的生殖、神经和免疫系统等功能产生影响的外源性化学物质。农药、洗涤剂、塑料、纺织品、塑化剂、防腐剂等化学用品是其主要来源。随着这些产品日益广泛而高频的使用,越来越多的EEDs进入环境,造成污染[6-7]。人类可通过摄取被EEDs污染的食物、呼吸道吸入和皮肤接触等途径接触EEDs,暴露风险不言而喻[8]。EEDs暴露对女性青春期性成熟具有干扰作用,如女性尿液中高双酚A水平与青春期启动提前相关(P<0.05)[9];我们前期的研究也发现,尿液中拟除虫菊酯主要代谢产物水平与女性青春期发动时相呈显著负相关[OR=0.51(95%CI:0.28—0.93),P<0.05][10]。但各类EEDs对女性青春期性成熟的具体影响均未得到一致结论,且具体诱发机制尚不明确。

    本文回顾了青春期性成熟的神经内分泌机理,并对近10年发表的有关EEDs对女性青春期性成熟影响的人群流行病学研究进行整理,初步探讨产生这些作用可能的分子机制,以期为深入研究EEDs和青春期性成熟的关系提供思路。

    • 在PubMed和中国知网数据库中使用“青春期、性成熟、女孩、下丘脑-垂体-性腺轴、有机氯、二恶英、多氯联苯、多环芳烃、多溴联苯醚、烷基酚、双酚A、邻苯二甲酸酯、拟除虫菊酯、有机磷农药、暴露、重金属、类固醇受体、钙通道、信号分子”关键词对2011年至2021年的科学文献进行搜索。所有论文均经过仔细和系统的审查与筛选,符合本研究范围的论文纳入本综述。

    2.   青春期性成熟的神经内分泌机理(The neuroendocrine mechanism of sexual maturity)
    • 神经内分泌机理主要指神经系统和内分泌系统之间的调控关系。虽然目前关于青春期启动机制的理论尚不完善,但通过大量实验研究,对青春期性成熟的神经内分泌机理已有较为清晰的认识。青春期是一个主要由神经内分泌和性腺激素级联驱动的生理和社会情感成熟发展的过程[11]。青春期的发育分为肾上腺期和性腺期。第一阶段,由下丘脑-垂体-肾上腺轴(hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis,HPA轴)触发的肾上腺素是青春期发育的最早迹象,负责部分第二性征的表现。下丘脑-垂体-性腺轴(hypothalamic-pituitary-gonad axis,HPG轴)是青春期发育第二阶段的调控轴,其与青春期启动的内分泌调控有关。在胎儿期,HPG轴已基本建立,但由于该时期母体能通过胎盘进行雌激素的供给,因此该系统对内分泌的调控直到出生后才逐步稳定。婴幼儿时期,HPG系统被抑制,促性腺激素释放激素(gonadotropin releasing hormone,GnRH)分泌水平较低。在这一静止期后,HPG轴被重新激活并随着青春期临床特征的出现而达到顶峰。下丘脑释放的GnRH诱导垂体分泌促性腺激素——黄体生成素(luteinizing,LH)和卵泡刺激素(follicle-stimulating hormone,FSH),进而刺激卵巢和睾丸产生性类固醇激素如雌激素和睾酮,较高的性激素浓度也会对下丘脑GnRH的分泌和垂体促性腺激素的分泌进行负反馈。关于HPG轴的启动可能与Kiss-1基因(Kisspeptin-1)的表达及其受体G蛋白偶联受体54(G protein-coupled receptor 54,GPR54)、速激肽、MKRN3基因(makorin ring finger protein 3)等有关[12-14]

    3.   EEDs暴露与青春期性成熟之间的相关性(The correlation between the EEDs exposure and sexual maturity in females)
    • 本文收集到32项与EEDs暴露对女性青春期性成熟影响有关的人群流行病学研究,根据文献中研究的EEDs种类,将文献分为有机污染物、重金属这两类化合物对女性青春期性成熟的影响。表1表2总结了这些文献的研究方法及其与青春期性成熟的相关性,具体分析如下。

    • 工业化学品如阻燃剂、绝缘油、杀虫剂、焚烧产物等是环境中持久性有机污染物(persistent organic pollutants,POPs)的主要来源。由于POPs毒性大、难降解、半衰期长[15],对人类健康及生态环境潜在危害大,2001年联合国环境规划署首次提出控制包括滴滴涕、多氯联苯等在内的12种POPs。2004年斯德哥尔摩公约正式生效,指出应禁止生产、使用POPs。

      两项前瞻性队列研究探讨了母亲产前POPs暴露对所产女性青春期性成熟的影响。一项针对314名女性的调查,对其母亲怀孕时和其9岁时血清中4种多溴二苯醚(polybrominated diphenyl ether,PBDE)(BDE-47,-99,-100,-153)浓度的研究发现,产前暴露于多溴二苯醚使所产女性月经初潮时间延迟[相对危险度(relative risk,RR)=0.5(95%CI:0.3—0.9),P<0.05][16];意大利的一项以塞维索化工厂爆炸事件导致的2,3,7,8-四氯二苯-并-对二恶英(2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin,TCDD)暴露为调查背景的队列研究将爆炸发生时母亲当时青春期性成熟发育情况作为影响因素进行修正后发现,母亲产前TCDD暴露与其所产女性月经初潮年龄延迟有关[风险比(hazard ratio,HR) = 0.71(95%CI:0.52—0.97),P<0.05][17]

      六项人群流行病学研究对女性出生后POPs暴露与女性青春期性成熟之间是否存在相关性进行探讨。三项研究[18-20]通过对女性血清中有机氯农药、多溴联苯醚、多氯联苯水平检测后发现这些POPs与女性青春期性成熟时间提前相关;罗马的一项包括404名女性的病例对照研究显示,特发性中枢性性早熟女性血清中多溴二苯醚浓度较其他文献中正常女性浓度高[21];两项研究显示[22-23]多环芳烃是女性尤其是超重女性青春期发动时相提前的潜在风险因素。

      就以上8项研究结果来看,母亲产前POPs暴露和女性出生后的POPs暴露与女性青春期发动时相有关。

    • 烷基酚(alkylphenols,APs)是一种表面活性剂,常应用于如橡胶制品、塑料、纺织品等化工产品的生产中,在室内空气、建筑材料、污水处理厂的流出物及地下水中均能检出APs[24]。吸入含APs的粉尘是人体暴露主要途径[25]。Wen等[26]研究表明,超过60%的女性尿液中检出APs残留。

      双酚A(bisphenol A,BPA)是APs的代表物之一,全世界每年能生产2700万吨含有BPA的塑料用作食品包装。由于BPA的广泛使用,其衍生物被大量释放到环境中,造成水体和土壤污染[27]。两项前瞻性队列研究探讨了母亲产前BPA暴露对所产女性青春期性成熟的影响。一项研究报告称妊娠中期BPA暴露与乳房发育Tanner第二阶段及以上提前有关[比值比(odds ratio,OR)=2.2(95%CI:1.0—4.5),P<0.05][28];而另一项研究表示BPA暴露与生殖器毛发发育程度[mean shift=4.0 months(95%CI:1.3—6.7),P<0.05]、月经初潮[mean shift=3.2 months(95%CI:1.1—5.3),P<0.05]延迟有关[29]。十项人群流行病学研究对女性出生后BPA暴露与女性青春期性成熟之间是否存在相关性进行探讨。三项病例对照研究[930-31]结果提示性早熟患者尿液中BPA浓度水平较高,表明BPA暴露可能与青春期发动时相提前有关,并且在身体质量指数(body mass index,BMI)较低的女性中这种关联性更强;而中国的一项针对655名9—18岁女性的横断面研究发现,中剂量和高剂量BPA暴露的女性较对照组月经初潮相关的可能性较小,患病率(prevalence ratios,PRs)(95%CI)分别为0.73(0.56—0.95)和0.72(0.52—0.99)[32];其他研究结果则显示BPA暴露与青春期性成熟无关[33-38]

      壬基酚是乙氧基化烷基厌氧降解的产物,它在洗涤剂、农药乳化剂、纺织印染中充当表面活性剂的角色[39]。本文收集到了两项关于壬基酚暴露对青春期性成熟的影响的流行病学研究。Yum等[40]研究发现性早熟患者血液中n-壬基酚(n-nonyl phenol,n-NP)水平比对照组高1.2倍,但无统计学意义,提示这些化合物可能是青春期发动时相提前的潜在因素;而一项以问卷形式评估青春期发育情况、人体测量指数评估体型的横断面研究表明,壬基酚暴露与女性青春期性成熟无显著关联[41]

      本文发现与APs暴露对女性青春期性成熟时间影响有关的人群流行病学研究结果不尽相同,且即使在同一项研究中若判断依据不同,研究结果可能也会出现差异。

      邻苯二甲酸酯(phthalate,PAEs)是一类多功能化合物,常被当作塑化剂应用于儿童玩具、建筑材料、化妆品、医疗器械等用品中。虽然其生物半衰期小于24 h,不易在机体中蓄积,但其在生活中的广泛使用对人类造成了一个持续暴露的环境,超过90%的女性尿液中检出PAEs残留[42]

      三项队列研究对母亲产前PAEs暴露与其所产女性青春期性成熟之间是否存在相关性进行探讨。Berger等[29]通过研究产妇尿液中高分子量邻苯二甲酸二(2-乙基己基)酯(di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate,DEHP)浓度与其所产女性青春期乳房、生殖器毛发发育程度及月经初潮时间的关联性,发现产前暴露于高分子量DEHP与女性青春期性成熟延迟有关;一项美国的研究表明产前尿液邻苯二甲酸单乙酯浓度与生殖器毛发发育程度提前有关[mean shift=−1.3 months(95%CI:−2.5—−0.1),P<0.05][43];而Watkins等[28]对妊娠早、中、晚期母亲尿液中邻苯二甲酸酯代谢物进行分析后发现,尿液中邻苯二甲酸单(2-乙基己基)酯(mono-2-ethylhexyl phthalate,MEHP)浓度水平与妊娠中期乳房提前有关[OR=0.32(95%CI:0.11—0.95),P<0.05],与妊娠晚期乳房发育程度延迟有关[OR=3.76(95%CI:1.1—12.8),P<0.05]。

      七项人群流行病学研究探讨了女性出生后PAEs暴露对女性青春期性成熟的影响。两项队列研究[3344]表明PAEs暴露与女性青春期性成熟延迟有关;两项研究[3845]提示PAEs暴露与女性青春期性成熟提前有关,且在BMI值较低的人群中这种相关性更强;其他研究结果则显示PAEs暴露与女性青春期性成熟无关[36-3741]

      总而言之,不同研究得到的尿液中邻苯二甲酸酯代谢产物浓度与第二性征发育程度及月经初潮时间的相关性结果并不一致。考虑到生殖系统在不同生命发育周期完成不同的发育程序,每个发育点一到两次生物样品的测量可能不能准确反映通常的接触情况,同时研究人群特征、PAEs分子量不同也可能导致不同结局的发生。

      农药是在农业中以防治病虫害及调节植物生长为目的的一类有机化合物。随着滴滴涕、六六六、毒死蜱等传统农药的禁用,新型农药如拟除虫菊酯杀虫剂、有机磷农药等因其高效、低毒的特点逐渐在消费市场中占据主要地位。

      拟除虫菊酯是一种模拟天然除虫菊素的人工合成的杀虫剂,尽管其对人类的估计风险较低,但农业上的大量使用使其对环境造成不可避免的污染,空气、食物及生物体内均能检出拟除虫菊酯及其代谢物[46]。饮食摄入是人体暴露于拟除虫菊酯的主要途径[47]。已有研究表明,拟除虫菊酯在女性尿液中的检出率可高达90.4%,中位值浓度达到1.14 µg·g−1肌氨酸酐[48]。拟除虫菊酯对女性青春期性成熟具有干扰作用。Ye等[10]采用二元logistic回归模型对305名9—15岁的中国女性尿液中多种拟除虫菊酯的共同代谢产物3-苯氧基苯甲酸(3-phenoxybenzoic,3-PBA)浓度进行分析后首次发现,尿液中3-PBA浓度与初潮来否呈负相关[OR=0.51(95%CI:0.28—0.93),P<0.05],提示拟除虫菊酯可能会延迟女性青春期性成熟。

      有机磷化合物是一种神经毒性化学物质,曾在世界范围内广泛用作农药防治病虫害,对人体健康造成极大危害。Castiello等[49]研究发现母亲产前接触有机磷农药会延迟所产女性性成熟,其机制可能与生殖激素分泌异常有关[50]表1)。

    • 随着人类在生产生活中排放污水、废气及电子垃圾,重金属在环境中的浓度急剧升高,打破生态平衡。人体主要通过摄入受污染的水或食物接触重金属[51]。许多重金属已被证明对女性青春期性成熟有干扰作用[52]

      四项人群流行病学研究对母亲产前重金属暴露与其所产女性青春期性成熟之间是否存在相关性进行探讨。Rahman等[53]通过评估产妇怀孕时饮用水中砷浓度与其所产女性月经初潮时间的关系,发现产前砷暴露与其所产女性月经初潮时间延迟有关[调整后的风险比(adjusted hazard ratios,aHR)=0.77(95%CI:0.63—0.95),P<0.05)],且当饮用水中砷浓度超过200 μg·L−1时,月经初潮时间较砷暴露小于50 μg·L−1的女性延迟2.8个月;Maisonet[54]和Jansen[55]均采用队列研究的方法对母亲产前血铅浓度与其所产女性青春期第二性征发育程度和月经初潮时间之间是否存在相关性进行研究得出了相反的结果,这可能与不同妊娠阶段铅暴露产生的毒性效应不同有关;一项在墨西哥城开展的包括132名孕妇及其所产女性的队列研究发现,妊娠晚期孕妇尿液中镍[OR=0.73(95%CI:0.59—0.89),P<0.05)]、铝[OR=0.82(95%CI:0.68—0.99),P<0.05)]和镉[OR=0.83(95%CI:0.71—0.97),P<0.05)]浓度与所产女性青春期乳房发育缓慢呈正相关[56]

      三项人群流行病学研究探讨了女性出生后重金属暴露对女性青春期性成熟的影响。Reynolds等[57]采用电感耦合等离子体质谱法测定居住在旧金山的211名10—13岁女性的尿液样本中镉浓度,发现女性尿液中的镉暴露与月经初潮时间延迟有关[HR=0.42(95%CI:0.23—0.78),P<0.05];比利时的一项横断面研究结果显示汞暴露与女性月经初潮年龄呈负相关(P<0.05)[58]。Ashrap等[56]对包括132名孕妇及其所产女性的队列研究发现,青春期钡、铝暴露水平与生殖器毛发发育提前有关(P<0.05)。

      以上六项研究表明母亲产前或女性出生后重金属暴露与女性青春期性成熟之间存在相关性,且同一重金属在不同发育阶段的暴露可能造成不同的结局(表2)。

    4.   EEDs暴露影响女性青春期性成熟的分子机制(The mechanisms of EEDs on sexual maturity in females)
    • EEDs对女性青春期性成熟的影响主要表现为诱导青春期性成熟提前和延迟青春期性成熟,主要通过干扰下丘脑-垂体-卵巢轴(hypothalamic-pituitary-ovary axis,HPO轴)青春期相关基因的表达和激素的分泌影响女性青春期性成熟。目前关于EEDs暴露影响青春期性成熟机制的研究仍然十分匮乏,其中以BPA、DEHP和PBDEs居多(表3)。女性青春期性成熟提前或延后通常是雌激素分泌增加或减少的直接结果,雌激素分泌的改变可能是直接作用于卵巢甾体激素受体引起,也可能是通过对HPO轴离子通道或相关信号分子的调控引起的。

    • 雌激素水平在青春期性成熟的过程中发挥着重要的作用,EEDs可能直接通过雌激素受体诱导雌激素分泌从而使雌性青春期性成熟提前。研究表明,BPA可通过激活下丘脑中肿瘤转移抑制基因-1的表达,促使下丘脑分泌GnRH,进而促进垂体分泌LH、FSH、卵巢分泌雌二醇(estradiol,E2)、孕酮(progesterone,P)等性腺激素的分泌,导致受试动物阴道口张开较正常对照组提前(P<0.05)[59-62]。EEDs可通过多种信号转导途径间接对雌激素分泌造成干扰,从而诱导雌性青春期性成熟提前。BPA能干扰细胞外信号调节激酶1/2(ERK1/2)通路影响GnRH的激活,增加LH的脉动性[63]。Li等[64]将亲代(F0)妊娠期母鼠暴露于CdCl2并观察其雌性后代的类固醇及卵泡生成、青春期开始时间,发现镉能通过激活cAMP/PKA通路,增加F1雌性后代类固醇激素的生物合成,导致雌性F1代青春期提前。2,2-双(4-氯苯基)-1,1,1-三氯乙烷(dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane,p,p'-DDT)是人类促卵泡激素受体的正变构调节剂[65]

    • 甾体激素受体在青春期性成熟的过程中发挥的作用不容忽视[66]。Yu等[67]对雌性SD大鼠于出生第22天至70天进行灌胃给药,发现500 mg·kg−1 DEHP剂量组大鼠阴道口张开时间较正常对照组延迟,下丘脑Kiss1 mRNA表达水平、血清雌二醇、黄体生成素、孕酮分泌量显著减少(P<0.05)。EEDs可通过离子通道、甾体激素受体对雌激素的合成与分泌产生影响。DEHP可通过直接与雌激素受体结合或通过雄激素的非受体介导的方式诱导抗雌激素和抗雄激素活性[68]。多溴联苯醚及其代谢产物、多氯联苯、部分农药如滴滴涕、有机氯、有机磷等也被观察到能与G蛋白偶联雌激素受体结合,具有拮抗雌激素和雄激素活性的功能[69-72]。BPA可作为雌二醇的拮抗剂,抑制雌激素受体β信号的传导[73]

      钙信号在GnRH的分泌过程中扮演着重要角色,实验证明,阻断Ca2+通道能抑制自发性电活动,从而阻止GnRH的释放[74],因此可能是EEDs诱导青春期性成熟延迟潜在的分子机制。铅能与钙离子竞争结合位点,从而影响钙离子的运输[75];低剂量BPA可通过抑制SPCA1/2等钙通道使细胞的Ca2+稳态失衡[76]。EEDs也可能通过直接作用于钙离子通道从而延迟雌性青春期性成熟,但目前相关研究仍然较少,亟需进一步探究。

    5.   总结与展望(Summary and prospect)
    • 大量研究表明,EEDs会干扰女性青春期性成熟的正常进程。本文总结了有机化合物和重金属这两类环境内分泌干扰物对女性青春期性成熟影响的人群流行病学研究,以及这些EEDs造成女性青春期性成熟异常的可能机制。然而EEDs种类繁多,其化学结构、理化性质及毒理学效应复杂,且关于人群流行病学及其分子机制的研究还不够充分,所得结果通常是不确定甚至矛盾的,相关机制需要进一步探究。综上所述,今后的研究可以从以下4个方向进行探讨:①EEDs的毒性效应可受如共暴露、暴露时间、接触方式等因素的影响,应建立系统的评价人体健康危害的方法和指标,寻找合适的生物标志物进行分析测定,准确、全面地评估其对人类尤其是女性造成的影响;②应加强EEDs暴露的人群流行病学调查尤其是队列研究,进一步探究EEDs暴露对青春期发动时相的影响;③未来的研究应集中于青春期时间纵向测量和产前、早期生活暴露的测量,进一步探索超重、肥胖状态的潜在修正效应;④目前关于EEDs对青春期性成熟影响的相关分子机制研究十分匮乏,深入探讨其潜在的毒性机制可为EEDs的健康风险评估提供理论依据。

    Table (3) Reference (82)

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