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有机氯农药(organochlorine pesticides,OCPs)、多氯联苯(polychlorinated biphenyls,PCBs)和多环芳烃(polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons,PAHs)等持久性有机污染物(persistent organic pollutants,POPs),具有难降解性、生物蓄积性、高毒性和长距离迁移性[1],是全球重点关注的一类有机污染物。POPs经一次源排放后,由于其难降解性和长距离迁移性,在全球各环境介质中广泛分布[2];土壤因其较高的吸附容量,成为多数POPs的重要储存库[3]。
有机污染物(包括POPs)进入土壤后,一部分组分是可移动的,可经历各种迁移(比如挥发[4]和淋溶[5])和转化(比如生物降解[6])过程。随着污染物与土壤基质间的相互作用逐渐增强,一部分污染物与土壤基质紧密结合,其生物有效性(bioavailability)下降,发生老化(aging)现象[7-8](图1)。与基质紧密结合的污染物中,有部分组分(包括母体化合物和降解产物)在经过不明显改变化合物本身和基质结构的化学萃取后,仍存留于土壤基质中,这部分组分被称为不可提取态残留(non-extractable residue,NER)[11-13](又称结合态残留(bound residue)[14-15])。
土壤中有机污染物的环境归趋以前被认为仅受挥发、淋溶和生物降解等过程控制[16],但研究发现有机污染物在土壤的实际残留时间会超过基于污染物理化性质预测的理论残留时间[17]。典型案例是,Steinberg等[18]发现,尽管1,2-二溴乙烷(一种农业熏蒸剂)具有较高的挥发性、水溶性和较短的生物降解半衰期(预测值为18 d[19]),被禁用后仍在土壤中持续残留19年之久,其中一部分组分变成NER。近年来,同位素标记技术的广泛应用使NER的精确定量成为可能,并揭示了NER生成是土壤中有机污染物一个至关重要的环境过程。据估算[20],农业土壤中平均高达1/3的农药在施放后最终变成了NER[21]。但当周围环境条件发生改变时,NER可能会重新释放[20, 22],造成潜在的环境和健康风险。
作为被《关于持久性有机污染物的斯德哥尔摩公约》[23]和《远距离越境空气污染公约》[24]等多个国际公约管控的污染物,土壤中POPs-NER的生成及释放与POPs的控制和削减成效密切相关。本文对土壤中POPs-NER的测试方法、生成机理与动力学特征以及环境风险等方面进行了总结,并对未来的研究趋势进行展望。
土壤中持久性有机污染物不可提取态残留的测试方法、生成特征与环境风险研究进展
Determination, formation, and environmental risk of non-extractable residue (NER) of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in soil: A review
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摘要: 持久性有机污染物(persistent organic pollutants,POPs)是一类具持久性、高生物蓄积性、高毒性且具长距离迁移性的高关注度化学物质,土壤是其主要储存库。POPs进入土壤后,与土壤结合发生老化现象,一部分生成不可提取态残留(non-extractable residue,NER)。作为POPs环境归趋中的重要过程,NER的生成传统上被视为污染物的去毒或降解途径;但随着老化时间的增加或者受环境条件变化等因素的影响,土壤中NER可能会再次释放,造成环境风险。国内外有关土壤有机污染物NER的研究已有较多报道,但其中关于POPs-NER的报道相对欠缺。本文介绍了POPs-NER的同位素测试手段和生成机理,对特定组分NER的测试方法、POPs-NER生成的动力学模型与影响因素以及POPs-NER的释放与环境风险等方面的研究进展进行了综述,并简要分析了当前POPs-NER研究领域的局限和未来需要关注的问题。由于部分研究方向缺乏POPs-NER的案例,本文分析了一些非持久性有机污染物NER的相关研究,以期为今后POPs-NER的研究提供参考。Abstract: Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are substances of very high concern (SVHC) that are persistent, bioaccumulative, toxic, and have long-range transport potential. Soil is the main terrestrial reservoir of POPs due to the large sorptive capacity in soil matrices. After POPs enter the soil, a proportion of these contaminants becomes tightly bound to soil matrices and further generate non-extractable residues (NER), with the soil-contaminant interactions increasing with time (also termed “aging”). The NER formation is an important process in environmental fate of POPs and was traditionally deemed as a pathway of detoxification or degradation of contaminants. But NER could release or remobilize from soil matrices as the aging time increases or environmental conditions change, thus may pose environmental risks. The NER of organic contaminants in soil has been studied for decades, however, the report on POPs-NER is still rare. This article (Ⅰ) introduces the determination of NER based on isotopic labelling approaches and formation mechanisms of NER, (Ⅱ) reviews the progress in the research on the characterization of three types of NER, kinetic models and contributory factors of POPs-NER formation, and the release and environmental risks of POPs-NER, and also (Ⅲ) discusses the problems that should be investigated in the future. Due to the lack of cases in the research on POPs-NER, we summarized some studies on NER of non-persistent organic contaminants to provide references for future studies on POPs-NER.
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Key words:
- soil /
- persistent organic pollutants (POPs) /
- non-extractable residue (NER) /
- aging /
- sequestration
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表 1 土壤中有机污染物3种类型NER的常见测试方法
Table 1. Attempts on determination of three types of NER of organic contaminants in soil
NER类型
Type of NER生成机理
Formation mechanism of NER土壤基质的破坏性处理方法[35, 37, 45]
Destructive treatment method
of soil matrix处理方法优势
Advantages of treatment分析测试组分
Components for determination after treatment分析测试方法
Determination methodI型NER 吸附、
包埋等硅烷化 甲硅烷基取代SOM中的氢原子,使SOM中由非共价键聚集的部分裂解 萃取液 HPLC-14C-LSC[46] a;LSC[37];
13C-NMR[37]EDTA萃取 EDTA可提取土壤金属-有机配合物中的稳定二价金属离子,使SOM空间结构破坏或使部分SOM溶解 萃取液 HPLC-UV[47] b;LSC[48] II型NER 共价键
合化学降解 氢氧化钾或氢氧化钠-甲醇(KOH/NaOH-MeOH)水解 碱性水解可断裂NER与SOM间的酯键 萃取液 GC-MS[42, 49] 三溴化硼(BBr3)处理 BBr3可断裂NER与SOM间的醚键 萃取液 GC-MS[42] 四氧化钌(RuO4)氧化 RuO4氧化可断裂NER与SOM间的碳-碳键 萃取液 GC-MS[42] 热化学降解 四甲基氢氧化铵(TMAH)热化学降解 断裂NER与SOM间的碳-碳键;且甲基化利于酸性化合物的气相色谱分析 萃取液 GC-MS[50] III型NER 生物同化 酸性水解 盐酸水解 使土壤中含III型NER的蛋白质水解为氨基酸 萃取液 LSC[51] a HPLC:高效液相色谱;b UV:紫外. 表 2 NER生成过程中有机污染物与土壤基质间的相互作用(修改自文献[53])
Table 2. Binding interactions between organic contaminants and soil matrices within formation of NER (modified from Ref. [53])
I型NER/Type I NER II型NER/Type II NER 非共价键
Type of non-covalent binding适用范围
Type of compounds related to the interaction能量/(kJ·mol−1)
Binding force共价键
Type of covalent binding典型案例
Examples能量/(kJ·mol−1)
Binding force离子-离子力 可电离化合物 100—350 C—H键 >400 离子-偶极力 广泛适用 50—200 C—C键 >300 偶极-偶极力 广泛适用 5—50 C—N键 >300 π-π堆积 芳香族化合物 <5—50 C—O键 醚键、酯键 >300 配位体交换 广泛适用 50—150 C—F键 >400 电荷转移 广泛适用 5—50 C=C键 >600 氢键 广泛适用 4—120 C=O键 酯键 >700 疏水效应 非极性化合物 5—10 C≡C键 >800 范德华力 广泛适用 0.5—5 表 3 不同老化培养条件下有机污染物NER的释放比例与类型
Table 3. The proportion and type of released NER of organic contaminants in soil under different aging or incubation conditions
化合物类型
Type of spiked chemical化合物
Spiked compound辛醇-水分配系数a
KOW化合物标
记情况
Type of isotopic labelling of spiked chemical土壤老化时长
Aging time in soil to form NER含NER土壤
处理手段
Treatment approaches of soil containing NER处理类别
Type of soil treatmentNER释放
比例
Proportion of released NERNER可能释放类型
Proposed type of released NER参考文献
Ref.POPs PAHs 苯并[a]芘 6.57 未标记 200 d 经正丁醇萃取后再度老化30 d 无处理 2%—7%或2%—9% I型NER [22] 萘、蒽、芘和苯并[a]芘 3.44、4.88、5.45和6.57 14C标记 174 d 冻融循环及常温下共老化4个月 物理处理 0% — [48] 加入EDTA萃取
90 min化学处理 15% III型NER [48] 接种腐殖质降解菌或添加碳源后培养190 d 生物处理 0% — [48] 荧蒽和苯并[a]芘 4.81和6.57 14C标记 120 d NER生成达到峰值后继续老化21个月 无处理 2%—4% I型NER [28] PCBs PCB 28和PCB 52 5.84和6.39 14C标记 120 d NER生成达到峰值后继续老化21个月 无处理 −6%—4% b I型NER [28] OCPs p,p’-DDT 7.13 14C标记 672 d 经甲醇萃取后用硫酸处理 化学处理 5%—21% I型或II型NER [89] 经甲醇萃取后接种微生物培养3个月 生物处理 0% — [89] 溴代阻燃剂 四溴双酚A 8.68 14C标记 93 d(有氧) 经甲醇萃取后添加新鲜土壤在有氧-淹水-有氧条件下共培养231 d 物理处理 24%或7% II型NER [13] 66 d(淹水) 经甲醇萃取后添加新鲜土壤在有氧-淹水-有氧条件下共培养231 d 物理处理 28%或10% II型NER [13] 全氟化合物 全氟辛烷磺酸盐 4.03 c 未标记 60 d NER生成达到峰值后继续老化180 d 无处理 >60% I型或II型NER [90] 180 d 继续老化60 d 无处理 −4% b I型或II型NER [90] F-53B 3.09 c 未标记 60 d NER生成达到峰值后继续老化180 d 无处理 >50% I型或II型NER [90] 180 d 继续老化60 d 无处理 −3% b I型或II型NER [90] 非持久性有机污染物 除草剂 扑草净 3.29 14C标记 365 d 经甲醇萃取后接种微生物培养22 d 生物处理 27% I型NER [91] 含能化合物 三硝基
甲苯2.33 14C标记 176 d 冻融循环及常温下共老化4个月 物理处理 0% — [92] 研磨破碎 物理处理 0% — [92] 加入EDTA萃取 化学处理 7%—12% III型NER [92] 接种木质素降解菌后培养42 d 生物处理 <10% III型NER [92] a 表3中所有化合物的KOW值取自UFZ-LSER数据库[93]基于多参数线性自由能关系(ppLFERs)模型[94]的预测值;b 负号代表与初始阶段相比,有部分可萃取组分转化为NER,导致NER增加(NER释放的相反情况)。c UFZ-LSER数据库无法计算带电荷化合物的KOW值,全氟辛烷磺酸盐和F-53B的KOW值分别取自全氟辛烷磺酸和6:2氯化多氟醚磺酸. -
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